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Powerful Writing Strategies for All StudentsBy Karen Harris Ed.D., Steve Graham Ed.D., Linda Mason Ph.D., Barbara Friedlander
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Finally—highly effective, field-tested lesson plans for the students in every elementary and middle school classroom who struggle with writing. The practical how-to follow-up to Graham and Harris's popular Writing Better, this book is just what K–8 educators need to advance all students' writing skills, whether they have learning disabilities or just need extra help.
Teachers will get concise lesson plans they can use to easily supplement their existing writing curriculum. From 20 to 50 minutes each, the lessons
- address types of writing that are key to academic success, such as writing reports and constructing essays for standardized tests
- help with every phase of the writing process, from planning to revising
- reinforce new skills through group and individual practice
- ensure that improvements are sustained by teaching students critical self-regulation skills they can use independently
- support effective instruction with step-by-step guidelines and optional scripts for teachers
- engage students with mnemonic devices they'll immediately grasp and remember
- include fun photocopiable support materials, such as cue cards, picture prompts, sheets for graphing story parts, and charts for brainstorming and setting goals
Firmly grounded in the authors' Self-Regulated Strategy Development approach, which has been proven effective by 2 decades of research, these brief, powerful lessons will help transform struggling students into confident, skilled, and motivated writers.
- Sales Rank: #104107 in Books
- Brand: Harris, Karen R./ Graham, Steve/ Mason, Linda H./ Friedlander, Barbara/ Reid, Robert (FRW)
- Published on: 2007-11-28
- Released on: 2007-11-28
- Original language: English
- Number of items: 1
- Dimensions: 10.94" h x .89" w x 8.48" l, 2.32 pounds
- Binding: Paperback
- 444 pages
Review
A powerful, evidence; based approach to instruction . . . The clear and complete lessons plans included in this volume will help teachers enhance their ability to provide effective instruction to students at all levels. --Joanna Williams, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology and Education, Teachers College, Columbia University
Harris and Graham are models for contemporary intervention researchers with their balanced foci on impeccable research and assiduous attention to translating research into practice. --Bernice Wong, Professor Emerita, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada
Splendid, accessible compendium of a body of respected scholarly work now packaged for all teachers. A wonderful gift to the field! --Nickola Nelson, Ph.D., Charles Van Riper Professor, Western Michigan University
Harris and Graham are models for contemporary intervention researchers with their balanced foci on impeccable research and assiduous attention to translating research into practice. --Bernice Wong, Professor Emerita, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada
A powerful, evidence; based approach to instruction . . . The clear and complete lessons plans included in this volume will help teachers enhance their ability to provide effective instruction to students at all levels. --Joanna Williams, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology and Education, Teachers College, Columbia University
Harris and Graham are models for contemporary intervention researchers with their balanced foci on impeccable research and assiduous attention to translating research into practice. --Bernice Wong, Professor Emerita, Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada
A powerful, evidence; based approach to instruction . . . The clear and complete lessons plans included in this volume will help teachers enhance their ability to provide effective instruction to students at all levels. --Joanna Williams, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology and Education, Teachers College, Columbia University
About the Author
Karen Harris, Ed.D., is Professor and the Currey-Ingram Chair in Special Education at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. She has taught kindergarten and fourth-grade students, as well as elementary and secondary students with disabilities. She is co-author, with Steve Graham, of the books Making the Writing Process Work: Strategies for Composition and Self-Regulation; Teaching Every Child Every Day: Learning in Diverse Schools and Classrooms; Handbook of Learning Disabilities; and the curriculum Spell It-Write. Dr. Harris is the editor of the Journal of Educational Psychology. Her research is focused on theoretical and intervention issues in the development of academic and self-regulation strategies among students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, learning disabilities, and other challenges.
Steve Graham, Ph.D., is Professor and the Currey-Ingram Chair in Special Education at Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. He is the current editor of Exceptional Children and the past editor of Contemporary Educational Psychology. He is the co-author of the Handbook of Learning Disabilities; Making the Writing Process Work: Strategies for Composition and Self-Regulation; Teaching Every Child Every Day: Learning in Diverse Schools and Classrooms; Teaching Every Adolescent Every Day; Spell It-Write (a spelling program for children in grades K through 9); and the upcoming Handbook of Writing Research. Dr. Graham's research has focused mainly on identifying the factors that contribute to the development of writing difficulties; the development and validation of effective procedures for teaching planning, revising, and the mechanics of writings to struggling writers; and the use of technology to enhance writing performance and development.
Dr. Linda H. Mason has a joint appointment in the Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education and the Children, Youth, and Families Consortium at The Pennsylvania State University. Prior to completing her Ph.D., Dr. Mason taught special education in an inclusive public elementary school for six years. She has been awarded two U.S. Department of Education grants focusing on reading comprehension and writing intervention for low-achieving students. Dr. Mason serves on six editorial boards, including journals focused on research-topractice. At Penn State, she teaches courses in literacy for students with special needs, curriculum development, reading and writing methods, assessment, and effective instruction. Dr. Mason was awarded the Council for Exceptional Children, Division of Research Distinguished Early Career Award in 2011 and a Fulbright Scholarship to teach in Hungary in fall 2011.
Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.
Excerpted from Chapter 2 of Powerful Writing Strategies for All Students, by Karen R. Harris, Ed.D., Steve Graham, Ed.D.,Linda H. Mason, Ph.D., & Barbara Friedlander, M.A.
Copyright © 2008 by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
"Okay, students, begin writing." The students look at their clean, white, lined paper, pick up their newly sharpened pencils, and begin to think. Some students start writing, while others continue to sit still, look around the room, and, after a few minutes, raise their hands. "What should I write about?" "How do I get started?" "I'm just no good at writing." With that informal assessment, the teacher decides on an approach that will provide the students with the keys to unlocking the strategies and skills that good writers use. The teacher is confident that these students can learn to use the same powerful writing and self–regulation strategies that good writers use. In this chapter, the instructional model for teaching composing and self–regulation strategies, Self–Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD), is presented. The major goals of SRSD are threefold:
To assist students in mastering the higher–level cognitive processes involved in the planning, production, revising, and editing of written language
To help students further develop the ability to monitor and manage their own writing
To aid students in the development of positive attitudes and beliefs about writing and about themselves as writers
Many students have experienced a great deal of frustration, failure, or anxiety when faced with writing assignments. For these students, the development of positive attitudes and beliefs is essential. These attitudes and beliefs develop as the students learn powerful strategies that improve their writing. There is a great deal of truth in the old adage, "Nothing succeeds like success." To help students master writing strategies and use them effectively, the SRSD approach includes the development of skillful use of effective writing strategies, self–regulation of the writing process, and knowledge of one's own cognitive processes and other learning characteristics and an understanding of the potential and limitations of the strategies they learn.Self–regulation of strategic performance and knowledge about the strategies are important in helping students
- Understand how and when to apply a strategy
- Independently produce, evaluate, and modify a strategy in an effective manner
- Recognize meaningful improvement in skills, processes, and products
- Gain new insights regarding strategies and their own strategic performance
- Improve their expectations of and attitudes regarding themselves as writers
- Maintain and generalize strategic performance
STAGES OF INSTRUCTION
In the SRSD approach, six basic stages of instruction are used to develop and integrate use of the strategy and self–regulation components. SRSD has been successfully used with entire classes, small groups, individual students, and in tutoring settings. Throughout these stages, teachers and students collaborate on the acquisition, implementation, evaluation, and modification of strategies. These stages are not meant to be followed in a "cookbook" fashion. Instead, they provide a general format and guidelines. The instructional stages are meant to be recursive, teachers may return to any stage at any time. The stages may be reordered, combined, or modified as needed to meet student and teacher needs. In fact, as will be seen in the lesson plans in this book, the first two stages (Develop Background Knowledge and Discuss It) are typically combined in the first lessons. Some stages may not be needed by all students. Some students may already have the background knowledge needed to use the writing strategy and self–regulation processes and may therefore skip this stage or act as a resource for other students who need this stage. Finally, lessons have typically run anywhere from 20 to 60 minutes (depending on grade level and class schedules) at least three times a week. Typically, in the elementary grades, 8 to 12 lessons running 30 to 40 minutes each have proven sufficient to allow students to complete the stages. More complex strategies may take longer in middle or high school.
Generalization and Maintenance
Procedures for promoting maintenance and generalization are integrated throughout the stages of instruction in the SRSD model. These include
- Identifying opportunities to use the writing and/or self–regulation strategies in other classes or settings
- Discussing attempts to use the strategies at other times
- Reminding students to use the strategies at appropriate times
- Analyzing how these processes may be modified with other tasks and in new settings
- Evaluating the success of these processes during and after instruction It is helpful to involve others (e.g., other teachers, parents) as they can prompt the use of the strategies at appropriate times in other settings. Booster sessions in which the strategies are reviewed, discussed, and supported are very important for most students in terms of maintaining the strategies.
Self–Efficacy
Students who have experienced significant learning problems frequently develop negative beliefs and expectations that result in low motivation, attitudinal problems, and lessened effort. Repeated failure can result in feelings of helplessness. These students believe that further effort will have little effect, even when the task is doable. Self–efficacy is believed to have a strong influence on performance as it affects a person's choice of activities, the amount of effort expended, and the degree of persistence one demonstrates in the face of difficulty. Students who believe they are capable of successful performance are likely to choose challenging activities, work hard, and persist when difficulties are encountered. Throughout SRSD, self–efficacy is supported and developed.
A brief overview of the six stages of instruction in SRSD is presented in Table 2.1.Each stage is discussed in detail and then followed by an example of SRSD in the classroom. The stages of instruction, however, represent merely the framework of instruction. Thus, this description is followed by a discussion of critical characteristics of SRSD instruction and guidelines for evaluation of this process.
STAGE 1: DEVELOP BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE
During this stage, background knowledge and any preskills (e.g., vocabulary, concepts) students need for learning and using the writing or self–regulation strategies are developed. For example, if students are going to learn a story–writing strategy (e.g., the Who, When, and Where [WWW] strategy for story writing included in this book), they must understand the vocabulary related to story parts, including who, when, and where, or for older students, setting and characters. Preskills and background knowledge should be developed far enough to allow students to move into the next stages. Their development can continue into Stages 2 (Discuss It) and 3 (Model It); however, it is usually best if preskills are mastered by Stage 4 (Memorize It). Background knowledge and preskill development activities depend on the learner and the knowledge and skills that must be developed. These skills can be developed in regard to both the composition and self–regulation strategies that are to be mastered.
The concept and use of self–instructions are often introduced in Stage 1. The teacher and students might collaboratively create self–instructions relevant to composition. For example, a student who tends to act impulsively might say to himself, "Remember, I need to take my time and go slow." A student with a low tolerance for frustration might say, "I'm not going to get mad. Getting mad makes me do bad." Students can practice using such self–instructions in a variety of situations as a part of preskill development; these self–instructions can then be incorporated into the later stages of strategies instruction. This may be particularly helpful for students who have not previously learned to use self–instructions.
In addition, the teacher can discuss with students how the things they say to themselves can either help or hurt them. Students might discuss the self–speech they currently use when asked to write and whether it helps them or needs to be changed. Negative or ineffective self–statements such as "I'm no good at this" or "I hate writing" can be identified, and the ways these statements interfere with performance can be discussed.
STAGE 2: DISCUSS IT
During this stage, the teacher and students discuss the significance and benefits of the writing and self–regulation strategies to be learned. Each step in the writing strategy is discussed, as are any mnemonics to be used. The importance of student effort in strategy mastery is also emphasized. Throughout instruction, it is essential that students recognize and discuss the role of effort in learning and using strategies, and that they see their efforts paying off in better writing. This emphasis on knowing more about the strategy and how it works, along with student effort, helps set the stage for the development of positive attitudes about writing. The goals of strategies instruction are discussed and determined. This stage enables students to make a commitment to strategy mastery and participation as a partner/collaborator while helping to establish motivation.
Along with their teacher, students may also examine their current performance on the targeted composing skill. Compositions from students' portfolios or those written before strategies instruction began can be read and analyzed. For example, if the story grammar strategy has been discussed, students' selected stories can be analyzed to see how many common story elements are included. In addition, students may graph the number of elements present in their stories. Graphing of current performance can help set the stage for both goal setting and self–monitoring. If current performance is examined to help set the stage for strategies instruction, it should be done in a positive, collaborative manner with the teacher stressing that students were not expected to have all the common story parts when these stories were written because they hadn't yet learned the strategy.
The teacher and students also discuss how and when to use the strategy. This discussion should not be limited to the writing task at hand. At this time, students can begin to identify opportunities to use the strategy in new situations or for other appropriate tasks (e.g., the story grammar strategy might be useful in writing a book report). However, the teacher should be sure that the proposed benefits of the strategy are expressed reasonably so that students do not develop unreasonable expectations. In addition, the teacher and students should discuss writing tasks in which this strategy would not be useful (e.g., the story–writing strategy would not be useful for writing a science report).
STAGE 3: MODEL IT
During this stage, the teacher or a peer models the composing strategy and selected types of self–instructions, thinking aloud while writing an actual composition. Types of self–instructions that can be introduced include problem definition (What is it? What do I have to do here?), focusing attention and planning (I need to concentrate. First I need to . . . then . . .), strategy step statements (I need to write down my strategy reminder), self–evaluation and error correcting (Have I used all of my parts? Oops! I missed one. I'd better add it), coping and self–control (I can handle this. I need to go slow and take my time), and self–reinforcement (I like this ending!). All of these forms should not be introduced at once. Instead, teachers should select types of statements and model statements specific to the needs and characteristics of their students. It is also important that the model demonstrate coping with difficulty, such as having trouble thinking what to do next or forgetting a strategy step, and then model how one successfully deals with a particular difficulty. Students can help the teacher when difficulties are encountered.
If students initially use prompts (they are typically used, as will be seen in the lesson plans), such as a graphic or chart listing the strategy steps or detailing a mnemonic and a graphic organizer for writing, the model should use them as well. The teacher can also set a goal for her or his composition, such as including all seven story parts, and evaluate the composition to see if that goal was met. Students can also be involved in the writing process by helping the teacher or peer model during planning and writing.
After self–regulation of the writing strategy has been modeled, the teacher and students should discuss the importance of the self–statements used during modeling as well as the goal setting and self–assessment. At this point, students typically begin developing their preferred self–instructions, recording them on paper or on bulletin boards. These self–instructions will be used in later stages; modeling, reexplanation, and further development of self–instructions can occur in later stages as needed. Teachers and students can discuss the strategy steps and instructional components and then collaboratively decide if any changes are needed to make the strategy more effective and efficient. This can be discussed again in later stages. Generalization of the strategy to other tasks and settings can also be discussed further.
Teachers who have used SRSD have either creatively augmented live modeling or come up with alternatives. One teacher who was uncomfortable with modeling from memory or from notes when he first began strategy instruction came up with an innovative approach that worked well for him and his students. He worked out his modeling script, making sure he had all of the components, steps, and self–instructions he wished to model. He then put his self–talk on audiotape, reading from the script but speaking naturally and appropriately. He played this tape with his writing group, using the overhead projector to simultaneously plan for a composition. When modeling planning using the strategy prompt and graphic organizer was completed, the teacher and his students collaboratively wrote the actual composition, using the notes generated while modeling. In addition, teachers have successfully incorporated videotapes of peers who have already learned the strategies modeling their use of the writing and selfregulation strategies.
One of the aspects of modeling that makes it such a powerful procedure is the extent to which the model's performance can be individualized to meet the needs of a particular student or group of students. When teachers first prepare to model for their students, they often find it helpful to brainstorm together. As teachers become more practiced and adept at modeling, they find the preparation for this stage much easier. Modeling scripts developed by three groups of teachers during a workshop are presented in Table 2.2. Each group identified and discussed a particular student or group of students for whom the modeling was intended and then identified particular needs or goals relevant to this student or group. The same picture was used by each group as a story prompt to facilitate comparing and contrasting the different scripts. Each group then developed a script for modeling the story–writing strategy. As you will see, the scripts differ in ways that make them responsive to the needs of the target students, yet each script is based on the same strategy.
STAGE 4: MEMORIZE IT
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